The upscale neighborhood of Runda was not spared either. Its proximity to the Ruaka River and high concrete walls made it particularly vulnerable to flooding. The stagnant waters became breeding grounds for swarms of mosquitoes too. In contrast, the neighboring affluent area of Karen Area was spared and remained dry and mosquito free even as Runda suffered greatly.

In Runda, the Ruaka river which is crucial for the area, overflowed its banks and thus filling homes and streets. The encroachment on Riparian land, and unauthorized construction near the river reduced its capacity to handle heavy rainfall and its effectiveness of any natural flood mitigation measures. Homes built too close to the river blocked natural water flow paths, leading to severe flooding.

Karen in contrast, located on higher ground and having a more favorable topography and efficient drainage systems designed to channel water away from residential areas, prevented the flooding. However, in some parts of Karen though, with the houses having high concrete walls structured, the water collected and pooled around making it a breeding ground for mosquitoes.

Another factor that contributed to the flooding was Runda’s rapid urbanization which led to reduced natural land cover, increasing surface runoff and the risk of flooding during heavy rains. The area’s growth is outpacing its infrastructure, lost green spaces and natural buffers, leaving it ill-prepared to deal with heavy rains. Karen on the other hand, has green spaces with less walls and urban planning that includes well-designed drainage systems that absorb excess rainwater and allows free flow of water.

In conclusion, the flooding and mosquito infestations in Runda highlighted a critical need for strategic urban planning, strict enforcement of land regulations and investment in robust infrastructure that can withstand unforeseen natural disasters like flooding and as a preventive measure. The contrasting experiences between Runda and Karen provided valuable lessons. Learning from these events, its crucial for policymakers, urban planners and the community to work together to implement sustainable solutions. This proactive approach will help mitigate the risk of floods and disease outbreak and enhance overall quality of life for residents.

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MOSQUITO CONTROL

Are Mosquitos Pests?

Yes!

Mosquitoes are a bother and huge menace when they swarm in large numbers and when they bite causing itchiness and discomfort to the extent of sometimes causing lack of proper sleep. However, they are more than a nuisance; they are a threat to human population health. They can carry serious diseases that infect humans and animals, including Malaria, West Nile virus, chikungunya virus, dengue virus and eastern equine encephalitis. A lot of effort has been put and continues to be emphasized so as to avoid mosquito bites and the detrimental effects that come with it.

There are over 3500 species of mosquitoes worldwide and they are present in all the continents except Antarctica. However only a few carry pathogens and cause disease. Some of these includes; Aedes, Anopheles and Culex. Mosquitoes are active at dusk and dawn and are most active at 26°C and do not function below 10°C.

Aedes

USING PEST CONTROL INTERVENTIONS TO COMBAT MALARIA

There are several Mosquito interventions including clearing of mosquito breeding grounds, use of insecticides, sleeping under treated nets, vaccines etc. However, the best form of mosquito control in the world is known as Indoor Residual Spraying, which is the application of a long-lasting, residual insecticide to potential malaria vector resting surfaces such as internal walls, eaves and ceilings of all houses or structures where such vectors are most likely to come into contact with the insecticide. IRS may also be referred to as Endophilism as it facilitates the blocking of malaria transmission through application of residual insecticides to walls.

Why Do IRS As A Mosquito Control Intervention?

IRS is a WHO recommended exercise as a core vector control intervention. When carried out correctly, IRS is a powerful activity that rapidly reduces adult mosquito vector density and longevity and, therefore, reduces malaria transmission greatly.

45 – Degree Angle

Malaria

Malaria is spread by mosquitoes. Every year millions of people around the world get malaria and over half a million people die from malaria every year, mostly children and pregnant women. Malaria causes fever and chills but it’s best diagnosed with a blood test. Several medicines treat malaria, but the parasites are becoming resistant to the medicines and that is why there is an emphasis on prevention more than cure and that is why conducting IRS is crucial especially in areas prone to it.

Malaria used to occur almost everywhere in the world. Now it’s mainly in warmer parts of the world such as:

• South America
• Central America and islands in the Caribbean
• Africa
• India and other parts of South Asia
• Middle East

ELIGIBLE STRUCTURES FOR IRS

HOW EFFECTIVE IS IRS

IRS is effective since most malaria vectors are endophilic i.e. tend to rest indoors. Once they do that, they take in the lethal dose thus reducing their lifespan. Progressive decline in vector density and longevity, especially among older female mosquitoes, and a reduction in overall vectorial capacity hence reduction in malaria transmission. IRS is most effective against indoor feeding (endophagic) and indoor-resting (endophilic) vectors. Greatest impact of an IRS intervention takes place after feeding, when the anopheline mosquito also known as marsh or nail mosquito is more likely to rest on a sprayed surface and pick up a lethal dose of selected insecticide, thus preventing it from transmitting malaria parasite to others in the vicinity. For the best results when it comes to IRS, there must be high coverage, usually over 85% coverage of all structures that are potential resting places. This will ensure one obtains the “mass effect”.

FACTORS THAT ENSURE AN EFFECTIVE IRS

• Proper training of spray operators

• Selection and proper use of the most effective equipment

• Precise planning, preparation, and logistics
• Correct insecticide selection
• Dedicated and disciplined spray operators

• Well-organized and diligent supervisors
• Good data recording and prior communication
• Enough staff, procurement, environmental compliance, and other tasks

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A. Physical Characteristics: Cockroaches typically have flattened, oval-shaped
bodies with long antennae and six legs. They are known for their hard
exoskeleton, which can vary in color from brown to black, depending on the
species. Some species have wings, while others are flightless.

B. Habitat: Cockroaches are found worldwide, but they are most commonly
associated with human habitations. They prefer warm and humid environments,
making them often found in kitchens, bathrooms, basements, and other areas
with access to food, water, and shelter.

C. Nocturnal Behavior: Cockroaches are primarily nocturnal, meaning they are
most active at night. They tend to hide during the day in cracks, crevices, and
dark areas.

D. Diet: Cockroaches are omnivorous scavengers and can consume a wide range of
organic matter. They feed on food scraps, paper, glue, and even decaying matter.

E. Reproduction: Cockroaches reproduce quickly. They lay egg cases called
oothecae, which contain multiple eggs. The number of eggs in an ootheca varies
by species. After hatching, young cockroaches, called nymphs, go through
several molts before reaching adulthood.

F. Health Concerns: Cockroaches can be a health concern because they can carry
pathogens and allergens that may cause or exacerbate respiratory issues,
especially in individuals with allergies or asthma. Their droppings, shed skin,
and saliva can trigger allergic reactions.

G. Pest Control: Controlling cockroach infestations often involves a combination of
sanitation, sealing entry points, and the use of insecticides or traps. It’s essential
to address the root causes of infestations, such as eliminating food and water
sources.

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B. Feeding Habits: Bedbugs are obligate blood-feeders, meaning they require blood to survive and reproduce. They feed on their hosts by piercing the skin with specialized mouthparts and withdrawing blood. Bedbug bites often result in itchy, red welts.

C. Nocturnal Behavior: Bedbugs are primarily nocturnal and are most active during
the night. They are attracted to the carbon dioxide and body heat emitted by
sleeping humans, which helps them locate their hosts.

D. Hiding Places: During the day, bedbugs hide in various places, including
mattress seams, cracks in walls and furniture, electrical outlets, and luggage.
They are excellent at hiding, making them challenging to detect.

E. Reproduction: Bedbugs reproduce by laying eggs, which hatch into nymphs.
Nymphs go through several molts before reaching adulthood. The entire life
cycle from egg to adult can take several weeks, depending on temperature and
feeding opportunities.

F. Health Concerns: While bedbugs are not known to transmit diseases directly,
their bites can cause allergic reactions, skin infections, and psychological distress
due to the associated itching and anxiety.

G. Spread: Bedbugs are known to spread through infested furniture, clothing,
luggage, and other belongings. They can also move between apartments and
rooms within a building, which makes controlling infestations in multi-unit
housing challenging.

H. Prevention and Control: Preventing and controlling bedbug infestations involves
a combination of measures, including regular cleaning and vacuuming, sealing
cracks and crevices, laundering infested clothing and bedding, using mattress
encasements, and, in severe cases, the use of pesticides applied by professionals.

I. Resurgence: Bedbugs were largely eradicated in many parts of the world in the
mid-20th century due to the use of potent pesticides like DDT. However, they
have made a resurgence in recent decades, likely due to increased travel, changes
in pest control methods, and pesticide resistance.

J. Professional Help: Severe bedbug infestations often require the expertise of pest
control professionals. They may use a combination of chemical treatments, heat
treatments, and other methods to eliminate the infestation.

Dealing with bedbug infestations can be challenging, and early detection and
intervention are crucial in preventing the problem from spreading. Regular inspection
and prompt action can help mitigate the impact of bedbugs on your home and
well-being.

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A. Biology and Lifecycle:

a. Mosquitoes undergo a four-stage lifecycle: egg, larva, pupa, and adult.
b. Female mosquitoes are the ones that bite to obtain blood, which provides essential nutrients for their eggs. Males primarily feed on nectar and other plant-based substances.
c. Mosquito larvae typically live in water bodies, such as ponds, marshes,
and even artificial containers like water-filled tires and buckets.
d. After pupation, adult mosquitoes emerge from the water and can live for
several weeks to several months, depending on the species.

B. Feeding Habits:

a. Female mosquitoes require a blood meal to develop and lay eggs. They are

attracted to hosts by the carbon dioxide (CO2), body heat, and body odors

emitted by animals.

b. When a female mosquito bites, it pierces the skin with its proboscis (long,

needle-like mouthpart) and injects saliva to prevent blood clotting. This

saliva often causes an itchy reaction.

C. Disease Transmission:

a. Mosquitoes are known vectors for various diseases, including malaria,

dengue fever, Zika virus, West Nile virus, yellow fever, and more.

b. Disease transmission occurs when a mosquito feeds on an infected host

and subsequently bites an uninfected host, transferring the pathogen.

D. Control and Prevention:

a. Mosquito control efforts aim to reduce mosquito populations and

minimize the spread of diseases. Methods include insecticide spraying,

larval control in breeding sites, and public health campaigns.

b. Personal prevention measures include using mosquito nets, wearing

long-sleeved clothing, using insect repellents, and eliminating standing

water around homes where mosquitoes breed.

E. Ecological Importance:

a. Mosquitoes serve as a food source for various animals, including birds,

bats, and aquatic insects.

b. In aquatic ecosystems, mosquito larvae help in nutrient cycling by feeding

on detritus and microorganisms.

F. Species Diversity:

a. There are thousands of mosquito species, each with its own habitat

preferences and behaviors.

b. Not all mosquito species transmit diseases, and some are relatively

harmless to humans.

G. Climate and Habitat Impact:

a. Mosquito distribution and abundance are influenced by climate and

environmental factors. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns can

affect their prevalence.

b. Urbanization and habitat modification can create suitable conditions for

certain mosquito species, leading to increased encounters with humans.

Controlling mosquito-borne diseases remains a significant public health challenge in many parts of the world. Efforts to combat these diseases often involve a combination of mosquito control measures, vaccination programs, and public education to reduce mosquito-human interactions

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A. Physical Characteristics:

a. Fleas are tiny insects, usually ranging from 1 to 4 millimeters in length.
b. They have flattened bodies that are well-suited for moving through the fur
or feathers of their host animals.
c. Fleas have strong hind legs adapted for jumping. They can jump vertically
up to 7 inches (18 cm) and horizontally up to 13 inches (33 cm), which is
about 350 times their body length.

B. Feeding Habits:

a. Fleas are obligate blood-feeders, which means they require blood to
complete their life cycle and reproduce.
b. When a flea bites, it uses its specialized mouthparts to pierce the skin of its
host and feed on the host’s blood. Flea saliva contains anticoagulants to
prevent blood from clotting while they feed, which can cause itching and
allergic reactions in some individuals.

C. Life Cycle:

a. Fleas go through a complete metamorphosis, consisting of four stages:
egg, larva, pupa, and adult.
b. Flea eggs are laid on the host animal but can fall off into the environment.
Larvae develop in the environment, feeding on organic matter and flea
feces.
c. Pupation occurs in a cocoon, where the flea transforms into an adult. Fleas
can remain in the pupal stage for several weeks or even months.
d. Once they emerge as adults, fleas are ready to find a host and begin
feeding and reproducing.

D. Disease Transmission:

a. Fleas are not typically associated with the direct transmission of diseases
to humans. However, they can transmit diseases indirectly by acting as
vectors for pathogens.
b. In some regions, fleas can transmit diseases such as bubonic plague,
murine typhus, and bartonellosis.

E. Hosts:

a. Fleas infest a wide range of host animals, including domestic pets like
dogs and cats, as well as wildlife, rodents, and birds.
b. Different species of fleas may have specific host preferences, but many are
opportunistic and will feed on a variety of hosts.

F. Control and Prevention:

a. Controlling fleas often involves treating both the host animals and the
environment. This may include regular pet grooming, flea baths, the use
of flea collars, topical or oral flea treatments, and regular cleaning of pet
bedding and living areas.
b. Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies may include vacuuming,
washing bedding in hot water, and using insecticides designed for flea
control in and around the home.

Flea infestations can be a nuisance and cause discomfort for both pets and humans due to their bites. Prompt and thorough treatment is essential to manage and prevent flea problems in homes and on pets. Additionally, maintaining good hygiene and regular pet care practices can help reduce the risk of flea infestations.

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A. Physical Characteristics:

a. Ants have three main body segments: the head, thorax, and abdomen.
b. They typically have a pair of antennae on the head, which they use for
communication and navigation.
c. Ants are characterized by their six legs, with the back legs being stronger
and adapted for tasks such as carrying food and digging.

B. Colony Structure:

a. Ants live in colonies, which can range in size from a few dozen to millions
of individuals, depending on the species.
b. Each colony has a queen, worker ants, and sometimes male ants (drones).
c. The queen is responsible for laying eggs, worker ants carry out various
tasks, and male ants are involved in reproduction.

C. Division of Labor:

a. Worker ants are divided into different castes, each with specific roles.
These roles may include foraging, caring for the young, defending the
colony, and tending to the queen.
b. Ants communicate through chemical signals, such as pheromones, to
coordinate their activities and maintain colony cohesion.

D. Nesting Habits:

a. Ant colonies build nests, which can vary from underground tunnels to
constructed mounds or nests within plant structures.
b. The nest provides protection from predators and environmental
conditions.

E. Diet:

a. Ants are omnivorous and have diverse diets. They may feed on nectar,
insects, fruits, seeds, and even scavenged human food.
b. Some ant species have developed mutualistic relationships with plants by
collecting nectar and in return protecting the plant from herbivores.

F. Ecological Importance:

a. Ants play crucial roles in ecosystems as decomposers, seed dispersers, and
predators of other insects.
b. They help break down organic matter, which aids in nutrient recycling.
c. Some ant species engage in mutualistic relationships with aphids and
other insects, protecting them in exchange for a sugary substance called
honeydew.

G. Agricultural Pests and Benefits:

a. While some ant species are considered agricultural pests that damage
crops and structures, others provide benefits by controlling pest
populations.
b. Certain ant species are used in biological pest control programs to manage
agricultural pests.

H. Defense Mechanisms:

a. Ant colonies have elaborate defense mechanisms, which can include
biting, stinging, or releasing chemical alarms (pheromones) to alert the
colony to threats.
b. Some ant species have evolved specialized stingers for defense and prey
capture.

I. Life Cycle:

a. Ants undergo complete metamorphosis, with four distinct life stages: egg,
larva, pupa, and adult.
b. The duration and details of each stage can vary among species.

Ants are incredibly diverse, with over 12,000 known species worldwide. They are found in nearly every terrestrial habitat and have adapted to a wide range of ecological niches. Their social behavior and ecological roles make them fascinating and ecologically important insects

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A. Physical Characteristics:

a. Flies come in various shapes and sizes, but they typically have a compact, streamlined body.
b. They have large, often multifaceted eyes that provide them with excellent vision.
c. Flies possess mouthparts adapted for various feeding habits. Some have piercing-sucking mouthparts (like mosquitoes and horseflies), while others have sponging or lapping mouthparts (like houseflies).

B. Larval Stages:

a. The larval stages of flies are known by various names, including maggots, grubs, and caterpillars, depending on the species.
b. Fly larvae have diverse diets, with some being scavengers, decomposers, herbivores, or even parasites of other organisms.

C. Diverse Lifestyles:

a. Flies occupy a wide range of ecological niches. Some are pollinators of
plants, while others are predators of other insects.
b. Certain fly species are associated with specific habitats, such as fruit flies
in orchards or hoverflies in gardens.

D. Disease Vectors:

a. Some species of flies are known disease vectors. For example, mosquitoes can transmit diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and Zika virus.
b. Houseflies can carry disease-causing bacteria on their bodies and transfer them to food and surfaces they come into contact with.

E. Pollinators:

a. Many flies, including syrphid flies (hoverflies), tachinid flies, and bee flies, are important pollinators for various flowering plants.
b. Some fly species have evolved to mimic the appearance of bees or wasps to deter predators.

F. Economic and Agricultural Impact:

a. Certain fly species, such as the Mediterranean fruit fly and the tsetse fly, can have significant economic and agricultural impacts by damaging
crops or transmitting diseases to livestock.
b. The control of agricultural pest flies often involves the use of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies.

G. Control and Prevention:

a. Controlling fly populations in and around human habitats is important for preventing disease transmission and nuisance infestations.

b. Methods for fly control include sanitation measures, fly traps, insecticides, and biological control agents, such as parasitic wasps that target fly larvae.

H. Lifecycle:

a. The lifecycle of a fly typically consists of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The duration of these stages can vary widely depending on species
and environmental conditions.

Flies are one of the most abundant and diverse groups of insects on Earth. While they play essential roles in various ecosystems, some species can be pests or disease vectors, making fly control and management important in both agricultural and urban settings.

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A. Physical Characteristics:

a. Termites have soft bodies and are typically pale or translucent in color.
b. They are small insects, with workers and soldiers usually measuring a few millimeters in length, while reproductive termites (alates or swarmers) can
be larger.

B. Eusocial Behavior:

a. Termites live in highly organized colonies with a caste system that includes workers, soldiers, reproductives (kings and queens), and nymphs.
b. Workers are responsible for feeding and grooming other colony members, as well as foraging for food.
c. Soldiers have larger jaws and are tasked with defending the colony from predators, such as ants.
d. Reproductive termites are responsible for producing offspring.

C. Diet:

a. Termites are detritivores, meaning they feed on dead plant material, including wood, leaf litter, and soil.
b. They have a specialized gut filled with symbiotic microorganisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, that help break down cellulose into digestible
nutrients.

D. Habitats:

a. Termites are found on every continent except Antarctica and are particularly abundant in tropical and subtropical regions.
b. They live in colonies that can range in size from a few hundred to millions of individuals, depending on the species.

E. Ecological Importance:

a. Termites play a crucial role in ecosystems by recycling dead and decaying plant material, which helps to break down cellulose and release nutrients
back into the soil.
b. Their tunneling activities aerate the soil and improve its structure.

F. Damage to Structures:

a. Some termite species are considered pests because they can infest and cause significant damage to wooden structures, including houses, fences, and furniture.
b. Termites are often attracted to moisture and can enter buildings through cracks or gaps in the foundation.

G. Control and Prevention:

a. Termite control and prevention strategies include regular inspections of buildings, reducing moisture around foundations, treating wood with
termite-resistant chemicals, and using physical barriers like metal screens or bait stations.
b. Professional pest control services are often required to effectively eliminate termite infestations.

H. Reproduction:

a. Termite colonies produce winged reproductive individuals (alates or swarmers) during specific times of the year.
b. Alates leave the colony in a swarm, mate, and establish new colonies. A successful pair becomes a king and queen that can live for many years and
lay thousands of eggs.

I. Social Structure:

a. Termite colonies can exhibit a range of social structures, from small family groups to large, complex societies.
b. Some termite species build intricate nests that can be located underground, in wood, or even above ground in the form of mounds.

Termites are ecologically important insects, playing a vital role in the decomposition of plant material in natural ecosystems. However, they can become problematic when they infest human-made structures, leading to costly damage. Effective termite management involves a combination of preventive measures, regular inspections, and, in cases of iinfestation, professional pest control.

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1. Identify the Problem.
2. Sanitation and Cleaning.
3. Remove Clutter.
4. Seal Entry Points.
5. Use Cockroach Baits.
6. Use Insecticidal Sprays.
7. Set Cockroach Traps.
8. Professional Pest Control.
9. Prevent Reinfestation.
10. Regular Inspections.

Cockroach control can be a challenge but with consistent effort and high standards of
hygiene one can curb and prevent future infestations.

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